2026-09-03 03:54:28 +00:00
6 changed files with 584 additions and 50 deletions
@@ -0,0 +1,219 @@
+# Localization
+
+Pages are served in the visitor's language based on a `?lang=` query
+parameter or the `Accept-Language` header.
+
+- **Phase 1 (implemented):** negotiation, URL scheme, caching, rendering
+  plumbing. Translations are consumed through a stub interface; the database
+  still holds only the original language.
+- **Phase 2 (final plan):** gettext-style fragment storage in the
+  database — machine-translated chunks plus user override patches, assembled
+  at render time. Storage details in `docs/migrate.md`.
+
+## Phase 1: negotiation and URLs
+
+### Language selection
+
+Deliberately simple — **q-values are ignored**:
+
+- All known `Accept-Language` implementations send the header **in order of
+  preference**, so we parse it as an ordered list and never reorder.
+- Selection rule (`select_language` in `pagerite/i18n.py`):
+  1. If `?lang=<tag>` is present, use it (if a translation exists; otherwise
+     fall through to header logic).
+  2. If the article's original language appears anywhere in the header list,
+     use the **original**. Rationale: an AI translation is strictly worse
+     than the original for anyone who has that language configured at all
+     (e.g. `fi-FI, fi, en-US, en` gets English, not machine-translated
+     Finnish).
+  3. Otherwise walk the header list in order and use the first language for
+     which a translation exists.
+  4. Fall back to the original.
+
+Region tags normalize to their base subtag (`fi-FI` → `fi`).
+
+### URLs: pretty for users, indexable for search engines
+
+- Canonical URLs stay pretty (`/some-page`). Each language version is
+  addressable as `/some-page?lang=fi` so search engines can index them.
+- `<link rel="canonical">` points to the page **itself including the query**
+  (each language version is its own canonical).
+- `<link rel="alternate" hreflang="…">` entries point to every other language
+  version (with `?lang=`), plus `x-default` for the plain URL.
+- On page load, pagerite.js removes the `?lang=` query via
+  `history.replaceState` (restoring the pretty URL) but remembers the language
+  in a JS variable. All fetch-navigation and preloads it performs afterwards
+  send that language in the `Accept-Language` header, so the chosen language
+  sticks for the session of clicks.
+- A full page refresh or a shared link resets to automatic selection (header
+  only). This gives a clean one-time override without cookies.
+
+### Response correctness
+
+- Content responses carry `Vary: accept-language` (added to the existing
+  `accept-encoding` vary).
+- `_cached_body` and the page ETag include the **selected language** (not the
+  raw header, which would blow up the cache key space).
+- `<html lang="…">` reflects the served language.
+
+### Rendering
+
+- The translated Markdown goes through the same `markdown.render` pipeline.
+- Navigation/sidebar titles come from the translation's title map, with
+  per-node fallback to the original title (a partially translated tree must
+  still render).
+- Fixed UI strings ("Not Found" etc.) and the editor UI stay English for now.
+- The markdown typographer (SmartyPants) is English-centric; per-language
+  typographer options are a possible follow-up, not blocking.
+
+## Phase 2: fragment-based translation storage (draft)
+
+Phase 1 assumed whole-page translated Markdown delivered from outside. The
+refined model is gettext-style: an article has **one primary version** (its
+`content`, in its own language) plus, per target language, **machine
+fragments** (translated chunks of Markdown) and **user patches** (minimal
+editor overrides). Both are stored in the database and assembled into the
+served Markdown at render time.
+
+### The scenario this must handle
+
+1. Article written in English.
+2. Machine-translated into Spanish → fragments stored.
+3. Editor fixes one Spanish paragraph and changes a link elsewhere to point
+   at a Spanish resource → user patch hunks stored.
+4. English article edited → the edited chunk's key changes; its Spanish
+   fragment no longer matches.
+5. Page requested before the machine translation refreshes → served as a
+   **hybrid**: old fragments for unchanged chunks, plain English for the
+   edited chunk. User patches are attempted against this hybrid, best effort,
+   each hunk independently: the text fix is stale (its search text no longer
+   exists) and silently skipped; the link change still applies even though
+   the link sits in the now-English paragraph.
+6. Machine translation refreshes → full Spanish again, with both patch hunks
+   applying.
+
+### Chunks
+
+`chunk_markdown(markdown)` splits the source into block-level chunks —
+blank-line-separated blocks: headings, paragraphs, code fences (kept whole),
+list blocks, tables, HTML blocks. A chunk's identity is its **source text**,
+gettext-msgid style:
+
+```python
+chunk_key = blake3(normalize(chunk_text), digest_size=16).hex()
+```
+
+(`normalize`: strip trailing whitespace per line, collapse surrounding blank
+lines — so whitespace-only source edits don't invalidate translations.)
+
+Consequences:
+
+- Editing the English source invalidates exactly the edited chunks; all
+  other fragments keep applying. Stale fragments are simply never referenced
+  again and can be garbage-collected lazily (or left; they are tiny).
+- No explicit "source version" bookkeeping is needed — staleness falls out
+  of the keys.
+
+### User patches
+
+Editors always edit **full Markdown** in the existing editor UX — never
+fragments. When editing a translated view (`?lang=es`), the editor is loaded
+with the *current hybrid Markdown*; on save, the server computes a minimal
+diff against that hybrid and stores it as a patch:
+
+```python
+class Patch(msgspec.Struct, omit_defaults=True):
+    """One editing session's overrides, applied independently per hunk."""
+
+    hunks: list[tuple[str, str]] = []  # (search, replace) on hybrid Markdown
+```
+
+Hunks are produced from `difflib.SequenceMatcher` on the hybrid vs. the
+edited text at block granularity: each `replace`/`delete`/`insert` opcode
+becomes one `(search, replace)` pair, with the preceding block's tail as
+left context for `insert` (pure inserts have empty search context otherwise).
+Application is dead simple:
+
+```python
+def apply_patch(hybrid: str, patch: Patch) -> str:
+    for search, replace in patch.hunks:
+        if search and search in hybrid:
+            hybrid = hybrid.replace(search, replace, 1)
+        # missing search text = stale hunk -> silently skipped
+    return hybrid
+```
+
+Per-hunk independence is the robustness property from the scenario: a stale
+text fix does not block a still-valid link change. Patches are stored as an
+ordered list and applied in order.
+
+### Storage
+
+Full storage design and the `migrate_v3` restructuring live in
+`docs/migrate.md`. The short version, as it concerns this document:
+
+- Originals **and** translations are content-addressed text chunks in flat
+  stores: `Data.chunks: dict[hash, str]` and
+  `Data.trans: dict[f"{chunk_hash}:{lang}", str]` — path-independent, so
+  repeated paragraphs and menu titles are translated once and article moves
+  touch nothing. `Node.chunks: list[hash]` gives each article its order.
+- `Node` gains **`language: str = ""`**, inherited down the tree like
+  `banner` (empty = nearest ancestor, front page last, site default `en`
+  final). `select_language` and `<html lang>` use the resolved value instead
+  of the global `ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE` constant.
+  - **Known weakness:** changing a page's (or subtree's) `language` after
+    translations exist mis-keys everything — translations are keyed by
+    *source* chunks, so old entries silently stop matching and user patches
+    (searching for old-hybrid text) mostly go stale. That is acceptable:
+    the orphaned data is harmless and translations regenerate. We do not
+    migrate translations across a language change.
+- Article paths are stored and keyed **without leading slashes**
+  (`"docs/setup"`, front page `""`); slashes are added only in hrefs.
+
+### Render pipeline (replaces the phase-1 `get_translation` stub)
+
+```python
+def get_translation(path, lang, data) -> Translation | None:
+    if lang not in node.langs:
+        return None
+    hybrid = "\n\n".join(
+        chunks[h] if h in node.no_trans else trans.get(f"{h}:{lang}", chunks[h])
+        for h in node.chunks
+    )
+    for patch in data.patches.get(f"{path}:{lang}", []):
+        hybrid = apply_patch(hybrid, patch)
+    return Translation(markdown=hybrid, titles=title_map(data, lang))
+```
+
+- Availability is an article-level index: `node.langs: dict[lang, True]`,
+  maintained by the translation writers (translator job, patch saves) in the
+  same transaction as their data writes — rendering, language selection and
+  hreflang never probe the `trans` store chunk by chunk. A stale key is
+  benign (the "translation" just renders as the original).
+- `titles` for nav/sidebar/cards: each node's translated title is
+  `trans.get(f"{hash(node.title)}:{lang}")` with per-node fallback — one dict
+  lookup per nav item at render time.
+- Cache invalidation: writes to `chunks` / `trans` / `patches` (translator,
+  editor saves) call `_invalidate_pages()`, same as content writes.
+
+### Editor flow
+
+- `GET` of page Markdown for editing with a `lang` parameter returns the
+  hybrid (not the raw original) when the article has that language.
+- `PUT`/WS save with `lang` does **not** touch `node.chunks`; it diffs
+  against the hybrid that was served and appends a `Patch`. (Serve a hybrid
+  generation token with the editor payload so a save based on a stale hybrid
+  can be rebased or rejected — simplest: recompute the diff against the
+  *current* hybrid and accept best-effort, matching the patch philosophy.)
+- Saving the primary-language version re-chunks the submitted Markdown and
+  updates `Data.chunks` / `node.chunks` — only genuinely new text lands in
+  the kanta change diff (see docs/migrate.md).
+
+### Explicitly out of scope for phase 2
+
+- The machine translation itself: chunking output goes in, translated chunks
+  come back. A background job writes `trans` entries; this doc only defines
+  the storage key (`chunk_hash:lang`) and the merge semantics.
+- Garbage collection of orphaned chunks/translations (see docs/migrate.md).
+- sitemap.xml per-language entries; translated UI chrome; per-language
+  typographer options; multi-locale date/number formatting.
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+# migrate_v3: content-addressed chunk storage
+
+Status: **final plan**. `migrate_v3` restructures how article text and
+translations are stored, motivated by the localization model in
+`docs/localization.md` (phase 2). Since it is a full migration, it is free to
+break the current `Node.content: str | None` layout.
+
+## Goals
+
+- **Minimal change diffs.** kanta persists change diffs; editing one
+  paragraph of a long article must not rewrite the whole article string, and
+  a translation refresh must touch only the re-translated chunks.
+- **Fast, simple lookup.** Everything heavy lives in flat
+  `dict[hash, content]` stores; ordering lives in `list[hash]`. No large
+  nested structures, no deep paths.
+- **Path-independent text.** Chunks and their translations are keyed by
+  content hash, not by article path — the same paragraph (or menu title)
+  appearing in several articles is stored and translated once. Moving or
+  renaming an article touches nothing.
+
+## Design (chosen: global content-addressed stores)
+
+Original articles are *also* stored as chunks; everything — originals and
+translations — lives in flat hash-keyed dicts. Costs accepted: rendering does
+one dict lookup per chunk (trivial), orphaned hashes need occasional garbage
+collection, and the editor save path re-chunks server-side (it already
+diffs). The rejected alternatives: per-article nested `LangVersion`
+structures (churn, duplication, whole-string originals) and a hybrid with
+whole originals plus global translations (keeps the worst change-diff
+property).
+
+## Target layout
+
+```python
+class Node(msgspec.Struct, omit_defaults=True):
+    ...
+    #: Replaces `content: str | None`. None = pure category label;
+    #: a list (possibly empty) = a page, as ordered chunk hashes.
+    chunks: list[str] | None = None
+    #: Primary language of the article (BCP-47 base tag). "" = inherit
+    #: (nearest ancestor, front page last, site default "en" final).
+    language: str = ""
+    #: Chunk hashes the editor marked "do not translate" (always served
+    #: from the original). Presence-keys, value always True.
+    no_trans: dict[str, True] = {}
+    #: Languages this article is available in (besides its primary
+    #: language). Presence-keys, value always True — rendering, language
+    #: selection and hreflang alternates read this set instead of probing
+    #: the trans store chunk by chunk. Maintained by the writers (see
+    #: "Language index maintenance" below).
+    langs: dict[str, True] = {}
+
+class Data(msgspec.Struct):
+    ...
+    #: All original-language text, content-addressed: blake3(normalized,
+    #: digest 16) hex -> Markdown chunk. Shared by every article.
+    chunks: dict[str, str] = {}
+    #: Machine translations: f"{chunk_hash}:{lang}" -> translated Markdown.
+    #: Also used for node titles (hash of the title text).
+    trans: dict[str, str] = {}
+    #: User override patches per article and language:
+    #: f"{path}:{lang}" -> ordered patches (see localization.md).
+    patches: dict[str, list[Patch]] = {}
+```
+
+Notes:
+
+- **Article paths never carry a leading slash** in the DB or in lookup keys
+  (`"docs/setup"`, front page `""`); the leading slash is added only when
+  building hrefs. `migrate_v3` audits existing stored paths (translation
+  keys, analytics references, any path-valued fields) and normalizes them.
+- **Titles are chunks too**, by hash only: the nav renderer looks up
+  `trans.get(f"{hash(node.title)}:{lang}")`. No separate title storage;
+  editing a title invalidates its translations automatically.
+- **Per-hunk options** live in two places: *inherent* options are derived at
+  chunking time (code fences and HTML blocks are marked no-translate without
+  storing anything); *editor-set* flags are `node.no_trans` (keyed by chunk
+  hash, so a heavy edit silently drops the flag — acceptable and
+  self-healing).
+- **Patch payloads stay inline** in `Patch.hunks` — patches are small by
+  construction (minimal server-computed diffs). If a pathological case shows
+  up, hunks can be hash-stored later without schema pain.
+
+## Language index maintenance (`node.langs`)
+
+`node.langs` is a denormalized index over the `trans`/`patches` stores so
+that article rendering, `select_language`'s availability check, and hreflang
+alternate links never enumerate chunks. It is written by whoever writes
+translation data, in the same transaction:
+
+- **Translator job:** after writing `trans[f"{h}:{lang}"]` entries for an
+  article's chunks (or its title), set `node.langs[lang] = True`.
+- **Translated-view save:** appending the first patch for `f"{path}:{lang}"`
+  sets `node.langs[lang] = True` (patches alone make the version exist).
+- **Removals:** deleting a patch or GC'ing translations re-derives the key:
+  keep `lang` if any `trans` entry for the article's current chunks/title or
+  any patch remains, otherwise drop it. Stale `langs` keys are benign (an
+  advertised language that renders as the original), so removal can lag.
+
+## Render / save pipeline (summary)
+
+- **Render:** `text = "\n\n".join(chunks[h] for h in node.chunks)` for the
+  original; for language `L` (only ever attempted when `L in node.langs`),
+  per chunk `trans[f"{h}:{L}"]` unless missing or `h in node.no_trans`,
+  falling back to `chunks[h]`; then apply `patches.get(f"{path}:{L}", [])`
+  in order (per-hunk, best effort); then `markdown.render` as today. All of
+  this assembles the `Translation` the phase-1 plumbing already consumes.
+- **Availability:** `available_languages(path)` = `sorted(node.langs)`;
+  hreflang alternates and `?lang=` handling use exactly this set.
+- **Save (primary language):** server re-chunks the submitted Markdown,
+  inserts new hashes into `Data.chunks`, replaces `node.chunks`. Unchanged
+  chunks keep their hashes — only genuinely new text lands in the diff.
+- **Save (translated view):** diff against the served hybrid, append a
+  `Patch` under `patches[f"{path}:{lang}"]`; `node.chunks` untouched.
+- **Invalidate:** any write to `chunks` / `trans` / `patches` calls
+  `_invalidate_pages()`.
+
+## migrate_v3 steps
+
+1. Walk `menu`; for every node with a string `content`:
+   `chunks = chunk_markdown(content)`; write each into the new `chunks`
+  store; replace the field with the hash list (`None` stays `None`).
+2. Initialize empty `chunks` / `trans` / `patches` stores.
+3. Normalize stored paths: strip leading slashes anywhere paths are keys or
+   values.
+4. `language`, `no_trans` and `langs` need nothing — struct defaults cover
+   them (`langs` starts empty; the translator job fills it as translations
+   land).
+
+Chunking must be deterministic and shared with render/save, so
+`chunk_markdown` + `chunk_key` live in `pagerite/i18n.py` (or a small
+`pagerite/chunks.py`) and are imported by both `migrations.py` and
+`views.py`/`app.py`.
+
+## Garbage collection (later, manual or idle-time)
+
+Orphaned entries accumulate: chunks no longer referenced by any
+`node.chunks`/`node.title`, translations whose chunk hash is orphaned, patch
+hunks that never match. All are harmless (never read). A GC pass is a single
+tree walk collecting live hashes, then deleting the rest from `chunks` and
+`trans`; patches whose every hunk is stale get pruned. Not part of
+migrate_v3.
@@ -34,6 +34,24 @@ import "overlayscrollbars/overlayscrollbars.css";
    });
  }

+  // --- Language override (?lang=) ---------------------------------------
+  // /page?lang=fi serves a translated, indexable version (each language is
+  // its own canonical). Restore the pretty URL on load but remember the
+  // language: all fetch-navigation and preload requests below send it as
+  // Accept-Language, so the chosen language sticks for the session of
+  // clicks. A full refresh or shared link resets to automatic selection
+  // (the browser's own Accept-Language). See docs/localization.md.
+  const langParam = new URL(location.href).searchParams.get("lang");
+  if (langParam) {
+    const url = new URL(location.href);
+    url.searchParams.delete("lang");
+    history.replaceState(history.state, "", url);
+  }
+  const pageHeaders = langParam ? { "Accept-Language": langParam } : {};
+  // The in-memory page cache is keyed per language: the same pathname holds
+  // different HTML for each selected language.
+  const cacheKey = (pathname) => (langParam ? `${langParam}|${pathname}` : pathname);
+
  // Regions every page has. #sidebar is NOT among them: it is omitted
  // entirely when the section has no sub-navigation, and handled below.
  const REGIONS = ["page-banner", "nav", "main"];
@@ -352,9 +370,9 @@ import "overlayscrollbars/overlayscrollbars.css";
  // received it as the document (re-fetching would be redundant, and
  // browser heuristics may send it without if-none-match, defeating the
  // conditional request); it enters the cache when navigated to.
-  const pageCache = new Map(); // pathname -> HTML text
+  const pageCache = new Map(); // cacheKey(pathname) -> HTML text
  addEventListener("pagerite:page-fetched", (ev) => {
-    pageCache.set(new URL(ev.detail.url, location.href).pathname, ev.detail.html);
+    pageCache.set(cacheKey(new URL(ev.detail.url, location.href).pathname), ev.detail.html);
  });

  // Editors mutate site-wide state (theme, structure, headings, banners),
@@ -380,14 +398,14 @@ import "overlayscrollbars/overlayscrollbars.css";
      urls.add(a.pathname);
    }
    for (const url of urls) {
-      if (pageCache.has(url)) continue;
+      if (pageCache.has(cacheKey(url))) continue;
      // x-pagerite-preload: idle cache warm-up, not a page view — the
      // server excludes these GETs from analytics (the navigation message
      // sent on actual navigation does the counting).
-      fetch(url, { headers: { "x-pagerite-preload": "1" } })
+      fetch(url, { headers: { "x-pagerite-preload": "1", ...pageHeaders } })
        .then((r) => (r.ok && (r.headers.get("content-type") || "").includes("text/html")
          ? r.text() : ""))
-        .then((html) => { if (html) pageCache.set(url, html); })
+        .then((html) => { if (html) pageCache.set(cacheKey(url), html); })
        .catch(() => {});
    }
  }
@@ -697,12 +715,12 @@ import "overlayscrollbars/overlayscrollbars.css";
    teardownAnalytics();
    let doc;
    let finalUrl = url;
-    const cached = !editing && pageCache.get(new URL(url, location.href).pathname);
+    const cached = !editing && pageCache.get(cacheKey(new URL(url, location.href).pathname));
    if (cached) {
      doc = new DOMParser().parseFromString(cached, "text/html");
    } else {
      try {
-        const res = await fetch(url);
+        const res = await fetch(url, { headers: pageHeaders });
        const type = res.headers.get("content-type") || "";
        if (!res.ok || !type.includes("text/html")) throw new Error("not a page");
        // Reflect any redirect the server issued.
@@ -710,7 +728,7 @@ import "overlayscrollbars/overlayscrollbars.css";
        const html = await res.text();
        // Populate the cache too, so returning here (back/forward, or a
        // self-link in the nav) is served from memory.
-        pageCache.set(new URL(finalUrl, location.href).pathname, html);
+        pageCache.set(cacheKey(new URL(finalUrl, location.href).pathname), html);
        doc = new DOMParser().parseFromString(html, "text/html");
      } catch {
        location.href = url; // fall back to a normal navigation
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ from mediapreview import dispatch
 from pydantic import BaseModel
 from zstandard import ZstdCompressor

-from pagerite import analytics, seed, views
+from pagerite import analytics, i18n, seed, views
 from pagerite.__main__ import DEVMODE
 from pagerite.data import (
    Data,
@@ -381,10 +381,13 @@ class FileStore:
 file_store = FileStore(FILES_DIR)


-def _render_html(kind: str, path: str, base_url: str) -> str:
+def _render_html(kind: str, path: str, base_url: str, lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE) -> str:
    """Render one of the generated pages (see _html_response)."""
    if kind == "page":
-        return views.render_page(data.menu, path, data.brand, data.custom_css, data.theme, data.favicon, data.brand_html, base_url, transition=data.transition)
+        # A selected language without an actual translation renders the
+        # original (translation is None = English; see docs/localization.md).
+        translation = i18n.get_translation(path, lang) if lang != i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE else None
+        return views.render_page(data.menu, path, data.brand, data.custom_css, data.theme, data.favicon, data.brand_html, base_url, transition=data.transition, lang=lang, translation=translation)
    if kind == "category":
        return views.render_category(data.menu, path, data.brand, data.custom_css, data.theme, data.favicon, data.brand_html, transition=data.transition)
    if kind == "not-found":
@@ -406,13 +409,14 @@ def _invalidate_pages() -> None:


@lru_cache(maxsize=128)
-def _cached_body(kind: str, path: str, base_url: str, zstd: bool) -> bytes:
+def _cached_body(kind: str, path: str, base_url: str, zstd: bool, lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE) -> bytes:
    """Rendered page body; cleared by _invalidate_pages on any
-    content/settings change. base_url feeds the social meta URLs and zstd
+    content/settings change. base_url feeds the social meta URLs, zstd
    selects the stored encoding (both variants are cached rather than
-    re-compressed).
+    re-compressed) and lang the selected language (not the raw
+    Accept-Language header, which would blow up the cache key space).
    """
-    body = _render_html(kind, path, base_url).encode()
+    body = _render_html(kind, path, base_url, lang).encode()
    return _zstd.compress(body) if zstd else body


@@ -423,6 +427,7 @@ def _html_response(
    status_code: int = 200,
    headers: dict | None = None,
    etag: bool = False,
+    lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE,
 ) -> Response:
    """Response for a generated page, zstd-compressed when the client
    accepts it (no gzip fallback).
@@ -444,14 +449,15 @@ def _html_response(
    # localhost (varying ports) fall back to the request's own base URL.
    base_url = SITE_URL or str(request.base_url).rstrip("/")
    if DEVMODE:
-        identity = _render_html(kind, path, base_url).encode()
+        identity = _render_html(kind, path, base_url, lang).encode()
        body = _zstd.compress(identity) if zstd else identity
    else:
-        identity = _cached_body(kind, path, base_url, False)
-        body = _cached_body(kind, path, base_url, True) if zstd else identity
+        identity = _cached_body(kind, path, base_url, False, lang)
+        body = _cached_body(kind, path, base_url, True, lang) if zstd else identity
    h = dict(headers or {})
-    if zstd:
-        h["vary"] = "accept-encoding"
+    # Content varies by language (Accept-Language selects a translation)
+    # and by encoding; keep caches from mixing either representation.
+    h["vary"] = "accept-language" + (", accept-encoding" if zstd else "")
    if etag:
        tag = f'"{blake3.blake3(identity).hexdigest()[:32]}"'
        h["etag"] = tag
@@ -1509,13 +1515,22 @@ async def show_page(request: Request, path: str) -> Response:
    chain = resolve(data.menu, path)
    node = chain[-1] if chain else None
    if node is not None and node.published and node.content is not None:
+        # Language selection (docs/localization.md): ?lang= wins when a
+        # translation exists, else header logic. Analytics keep the raw
+        # Accept-Language header regardless of the selection.
+        languages = i18n.available_languages(path)
+        lang = i18n.select_language(
+            request.query_params.get("lang"),
+            accept_language,
+            lambda l: l in languages,
+        )
        # no-cache forbids serving a stored page without revalidation
        # (browsers would otherwise cache heuristically and serve stale
        # pages, e.g. after a theme change). In-session speed instead comes
        # from pagerite.js's in-memory page cache (preload everything, never
        # fetch on navigation); the ETag just makes those one-time preload
        # fetches and any revalidation cheap.
-        etag = f'"{path}@{node.modified.timestamp()}g{_render_gen}"'
+        etag = f'"{path}@{node.modified.timestamp()}g{_render_gen}l{lang}"'
        if request.headers.get("if-none-match") == etag:
            return Response(status_code=304)
        if _is_trackable_path(path):
@@ -1530,6 +1545,7 @@ async def show_page(request: Request, path: str) -> Response:
                "last-modified": _http_date(node.modified),
                "cache-control": "no-cache",
            },
+            lang=lang,
        )
    if node is not None and node.published and node.content is None:
        # Category label without a landing page: placeholder with the pen
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+"""Localization: language selection and translation access.
+
+See docs/localization.md. The database keeps only the original language
+(English); translations of page Markdown and navigation titles are consumed
+through get_translation(), with per-node fallback to the original titles.
+"""
+
+from collections.abc import Callable
+
+import msgspec
+
+#: Language of the database originals (and the default <html lang>).
+ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE = "en"
+
+
+class Translation(msgspec.Struct, omit_defaults=True):
+    """Translated content for one page and language.
+
+    ``markdown`` is the translated page source in the same format as the
+    original (None = keep the original Markdown); ``titles`` maps node paths
+    (top-level slug, then slash-joined) to translated navigation titles, so a
+    partially translated tree still renders with per-node English fallback.
+    """
+
+    markdown: str | None = None
+    titles: dict[str, str] = {}
+
+
+def parse_accept_language(header: str) -> list[str]:
+    """Accept-Language header as an ordered, deduped list of base subtags.
+
+    q-values are deliberately ignored: all known implementations send the
+    header in order of preference. Region tags normalize to their base
+    subtag (fi-FI -> fi); "*" and empties are dropped.
+    """
+    langs = []
+    for part in header.split(","):
+        tag = part.split(";", 1)[0].strip().lower().partition("-")[0]
+        if tag and tag != "*" and tag not in langs:
+            langs.append(tag)
+    return langs
+
+
+def select_language(
+    query_lang: str | None,
+    accept_language: str | None,
+    is_available: Callable[[str], bool],
+    original: str = ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE,
+) -> str:
+    """The language to serve (see docs/localization.md).
+
+    1. ``?lang=`` wins when a translation exists for it (otherwise falls
+       through to the header logic).
+    2. The original language anywhere in the header list wins — an AI
+       translation is strictly worse than the original for anyone who has
+       English configured at all.
+    3. Otherwise the first header language with an available translation.
+    4. Fall back to the original.
+    """
+    if query_lang:
+        tag = query_lang.strip().lower().partition("-")[0]
+        if tag == original or (tag and is_available(tag)):
+            return tag
+    langs = parse_accept_language(accept_language or "")
+    if original in langs:
+        return original
+    for lang in langs:
+        if lang != original and is_available(lang):
+            return lang
+    return original
+
+
+def get_translation(path: str, lang: str) -> Translation | None:
+    """The translation of the page at ``path`` for ``lang``, or None.
+
+    TODO: stub for the AI-translation track, which will provide the real
+    implementation (storage, generation, invalidation on source changes).
+    The CMS only consumes this function and available_languages().
+    """
+    return None
+
+
+def available_languages(path: str) -> list[str]:
+    """Languages with a translation for the page at ``path`` (besides the
+    original). Drives language selection and hreflang alternate links.
+
+    TODO: stub, together with get_translation().
+    """
+    return []
@@ -24,7 +24,9 @@ import re
 from html5tagger import HTML, Document, E, Template
 from platformdirs import site_data_dir, user_data_path

+from pagerite import i18n
 from pagerite.data import Node, prettify, resolve, sorted_nodes
+from pagerite.i18n import Translation
 from pagerite.markdown import render

 SITE_NAME = "Pagerite"
@@ -309,6 +311,8 @@ def _layout(
    transition: str = "cube",
    favicon: str = "",
    social: dict[str, str] | None = None,
+    lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE,
+    alternates: list[tuple[str, str]] = (),
 ) -> Template:
    """Page layout template with standard assets and ES-module scripts.

@@ -333,8 +337,12 @@ def _layout(

    ``social`` maps meta keys to contents: ``og:*``/``article:*`` go out as
    property attributes, everything else (description, twitter:*) as name.
+
+    ``lang`` is the served language for <html lang>; ``alternates`` holds
+    (hreflang, href) pairs for the other language versions of the page,
+    emitted as <link rel="alternate"> (see docs/localization.md).
    """
-    doc = Document(E.Title, lang="en")
+    doc = Document(E.Title, lang=lang)
    # Responsive layout (see the 48rem breakpoint in pagerite.css) needs
    # the real device width, not the default 980px layout viewport.
    doc.meta(name="viewport", content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1")
@@ -346,6 +354,8 @@ def _layout(
                doc.link(rel="canonical", href=value)
            else:
                doc.meta(name=key, content=value)
+    for hreflang, href in alternates:
+        doc.link(rel="alternate", hreflang=hreflang, href=href)
    # A custom favicon (from the site editor) is linked explicitly; without
    # one, browsers fall back to the build's /favicon.ico by convention.
    if favicon:
@@ -452,14 +462,20 @@ def _brand_link(brand: str, brand_html: str = "") -> HTML:
    return HTML(str(E.a(brand, href="/", id="brand"))) if brand else HTML("")


-def _title(slug: str, node: Node) -> str:
-    """Menu label: the configured title, prettified slug, "Home" fallback."""
+def _title(slug: str, node: Node, translation: Translation | None = None, path: str = "") -> str:
+    """Menu label: the configured title, prettified slug, "Home" fallback.
+
+    With a translation, its title map (keyed by node path) wins, falling
+    back per node to the original English title.
+    """
+    if translation and (t := translation.titles.get(path)):
+        return t
    return node.title or prettify(slug) or "Home"


 def _nav_link(
    doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str, current: str,
-    ancestors_current: bool = True,
+    ancestors_current: bool = True, translation: Translation | None = None,
 ) -> None:
    """Render one <li> linking the node. Category labels (no content of
    their own — None, or empty markdown as left by the site editor's
@@ -474,13 +490,13 @@ def _nav_link(
    if not node.content and (leaf := first_leaf(menu, path)) is not None:
        href = f"/{leaf}"
    doc.li.a(
-        _title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node),
+        _title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node, translation, path),
        href=href,
        **{"class": "current"} if is_current else {},
    )


-def nav_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str) -> HTML:
+def nav_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> HTML:
    """Render the contents of the #nav element for the current path.

    Top-level items in menu order; the front page (slug "", href "/")
@@ -491,11 +507,11 @@ def nav_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str) -> HTML:
    with nav:
        for slug, node in sorted_nodes(menu):
            if node.published:
-                _nav_link(nav, menu, node, slug, current)
+                _nav_link(nav, menu, node, slug, current, translation=translation)
    return HTML(str(nav))


-def sidebar_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str) -> HTML:
+def sidebar_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> HTML:
    """Render the #sidebar element for the current path (empty when none).

    The sidebar is the current main level section's sub-navigation: the
@@ -529,20 +545,20 @@ def sidebar_html(menu: dict[str, Node], current: str) -> HTML:
    nav = E.ul
    with nav:
        for slug, child in items:
-            _sidebar_item(nav, menu, child, f"{section}/{slug}", current)
+            _sidebar_item(nav, menu, child, f"{section}/{slug}", current, translation)
    return HTML(str(E.aside(nav, id="sidebar")))


-def _sidebar_item(doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str, current: str) -> None:
+def _sidebar_item(doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str, current: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> None:
    """One sidebar <li>: the node link, with its published children as a
    nested list (third level and deeper, recursively)."""
-    _nav_link(doc, menu, node, path, current, ancestors_current=False)
+    _nav_link(doc, menu, node, path, current, ancestors_current=False, translation=translation)
    sub = [(s, c) for s, c in sorted_nodes(node.children) if c.published]
    if sub:
        # doc.li.a(...) above left the <li> open for nesting.
        with doc.ul:
            for slug, child in sub:
-                _sidebar_item(doc, menu, child, f"{path}/{slug}", current)
+                _sidebar_item(doc, menu, child, f"{path}/{slug}", current, translation)


 def first_leaf(menu: dict[str, Node], path: str) -> str | None:
@@ -674,16 +690,24 @@ def banner_source(menu: dict[str, Node], path: str) -> str | None:
    return None


-def page_content(menu: dict[str, Node], path: str) -> HTML:
+def page_content(menu: dict[str, Node], path: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> HTML:
    """Render the contents of the #main element for a page.

    A page with published children (a category page) lists them as cards
-    after the markdown content.
+    after the markdown content. With a translation, its Markdown goes
+    through the same render pipeline; missing pieces (markdown=None, absent
+    title entries) fall back to the original.
    """
    node = resolve(menu, path)[-1]
+    content = node.content or ""
+    title = node.title
+    if translation:
+        if translation.markdown is not None:
+            content = translation.markdown
+        title = _title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node, translation, path) if node.title else title
    # The title is injected into the markdown (as # title when it has no
    # h1 of its own), so title and content render as one article.
-    rendered = render(node.content or "", path, node.created, node.modified, title=node.title)
+    rendered = render(content, path, node.created, node.modified, title=title)
    # Long articles get .multicol: the article column cap lifts (see the
    # #content grid in pagerite.css) and the .cols segments lay out in at
    # most two columns. The html is already segmented by render() — the
@@ -691,11 +715,11 @@ def page_content(menu: dict[str, Node], path: str) -> HTML:
    doc = E.article(class_="multicol") if rendered.multicol else E.article
    with doc:
        doc(HTML(rendered.html))
-        _cards(doc, menu, node, path)
+        _cards(doc, menu, node, path, translation)
    return HTML(str(doc))


-def _cards(doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str) -> None:
+def _cards(doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> None:
    """Card stacks of the node's published children (nothing when childless).

    One column per direct child, all in a single full-width row (the .wide
@@ -721,7 +745,7 @@ def _cards(doc, menu: dict[str, Node], node: Node, path: str) -> None:
                continue
            with doc.div(class_="stack"):
                for epath, enode in entries:
-                    _card(doc, enode, epath)
+                    _card(doc, enode, epath, translation)


 def _walk(node: Node, path: str):
@@ -735,9 +759,13 @@ def _walk(node: Node, path: str):
            yield from _walk(child, f"{path}/{slug}")


-def _card(doc, node: Node, path: str) -> None:
+def _card(doc, node: Node, path: str, translation: Translation | None = None) -> None:
    """One card in a stack: cover + title, plus the description when the
-    page has no image (its card shows a gradient cover instead)."""
+    page has no image (its card shows a gradient cover instead).
+
+    Cover/description heuristics run on the original Markdown even when
+    translated (only this page's own Markdown is translated); the title
+    uses the translation's title map."""
    image = description = ""
    if node.content:
        html = render(node.content, path, node.created, node.modified).html
@@ -749,7 +777,7 @@ def _card(doc, node: Node, path: str) -> None:
            doc.span(class_="cover", style=f'background-image: url("{image}")')
        else:
            doc.span(class_="cover")
-        doc.span(_title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node), class_="title")
+        doc.span(_title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node, translation, path), class_="title")
        if description:
            doc.span(description, class_="desc")

@@ -833,6 +861,7 @@ def _share_media(html: str, base_url: str) -> tuple[str, str]:

 def _social_meta(
    node: Node, path: str, title: str, html: str, brand: str, base_url: str,
+    lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE,
 ) -> dict[str, str]:
    """Open Graph/Twitter/SEO meta tags for a content page.

@@ -842,6 +871,9 @@ def _social_meta(
    representative figure. Absolute URLs are built from the request's base
    (social scrapers cannot use relative ones).

+    When a translation is served, the canonical URL includes the ?lang=
+    query: each language version is its own canonical (docs/localization.md).
+
    ``twitter:image`` pins extension-less store links to the ``.webp``
    variant: X only honors WebP via twitter:image (not og:image) and its
    scraper cannot be trusted to negotiate via Accept.
@@ -854,7 +886,7 @@ def _social_meta(
    )
    return {
        "description": text,
-        "canonical": url,
+        "canonical": f"{url}?lang={lang}" if url and lang != i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE else url,
        "og:type": "article",
        "og:title": title,
        "og:description": text,
@@ -879,21 +911,39 @@ def render_page(
    brand_html: str = "",
    base_url: str = "",
    transition: str = "cube",
+    lang: str = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE,
+    translation: Translation | None = None,
 ) -> str:
-    """Render a full HTML page for the slug path."""
+    """Render a full HTML page for the slug path.
+
+    ``lang``/``translation`` serve a translated version (see
+    docs/localization.md): None translation = the English original.
+    """
    node = resolve(menu, path)[-1]
-    title = _title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node)
-    main = page_content(menu, path)
-    social = _social_meta(node, path, title, str(main), brand, base_url)
+    if translation is None:
+        lang = i18n.ORIGINAL_LANGUAGE
+    title = _title(path.rpartition("/")[2], node, translation, path)
+    main = page_content(menu, path, translation)
+    social = _social_meta(node, path, title, str(main), brand, base_url, lang)
+    # hreflang alternates: every other language version (with ?lang=) plus
+    # x-default for the plain URL. Emitted only when translations exist.
+    alternates = []
+    if base_url:
+        available = i18n.available_languages(path)
+        alternates = [
+            (l, f"{base_url}/{path}?lang={l}") for l in available if l != lang
+        ]
+        if available:
+            alternates.append(("x-default", f"{base_url}/{path}"))
    return str(
        _layout(
            *_page_assets(), custom_css, theme, banner_design(menu, path, theme),
-            transition, favicon, social,
+            transition, favicon, social, lang, alternates,
        )(
            Title=f"{title} – {brand}" if brand else title,
            Brand=_brand_link(brand, brand_html),
-            Nav=nav_html(menu, path),
-            Sidebar=sidebar_html(menu, path),
+            Nav=nav_html(menu, path, translation),
+            Sidebar=sidebar_html(menu, path, translation),
            Banner=banner_html(menu, path, theme),
            Main=main,
        ),